The Peshwas and Maratha Expansion across 18th-Century India

Following the death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707 CE, the political center of gravity in South Asia shifted rapidly from Delhi to Satara and Pune. Under the leadership of a hereditary dynasty of Prime Ministers known as the Peshwas, the Maratha state transformed from a regional kingdom into a vast pan-Indian empire that dominated the subcontinent for much of the 18th century.

At its height, the Maratha Confederacy collected revenues and held territory stretching from Tamil Nadu in the south to Attock (on the banks of the Indus River) in the north, fundamentally reshaping the political landscape prior to the rise of British colonial rule.

1. The Institutional Shift: Balaji Vishwanath and the Hereditary Peshwai

The foundation of Maratha expansion was laid during the reign of Chhatrapati Shahu (grandson of Shivaji Maharaj). After escaping Mughal captivity in 1707 CE, Shahu appointed a brilliant Chitpavan Brahmin administrator, Balaji Vishwanath, as his Peshwa (Prime Minister) in 1713 CE.

                  FOUNDATION OF THE PESHWAI (1713-1720 CE)
  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
  | CONSOLIDATION UNDER SHAHU                                         |
  | Balaji Vishwanath unites factional Maratha Sardars under Shahu.   |
  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
                                    |
                                    v
  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
  | MUGHAL DIPLOMATIC TREATY (1719 CE)                                |
  | Secures Sanads (charters) for *Chauth* & *Sardeshmukhi* across    |
  | the six Mughal provinces (*subahs*) of the Deccan.                |
  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
                                    |
                                    v
  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
  | INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF POWER                                     |
  | The office of Peshwa becomes hereditary; administrative power     |
  | shifts from the Chhatrapati at Satara to the Peshwa at Pune.      |
  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+

Balaji Vishwanath realized that the declining Mughal court in Delhi could be leveraged through diplomacy. His 1719 CE treaty with the Sayyid Brothers (Delhi kingmakers) legally recognized Shahu’s sovereignty over the Maratha home territories (Swarajya) and granted the Marathas the legal right to collect Chauth (25% revenue tax) and Sardeshmukhi (additional 10% tax) across the entire Deccan peninsula.

2. Baji Rao I: Military Genius and Lightning Warfare (1720–1740 CE)

Upon Balaji Vishwanath’s death in 1720 CE, his 20-year-old son, Baji Rao I, assumed the Peshwaship. A charismatic military visionary, Baji Rao re-oriented Maratha grand strategy from defensive containment in the Deccan to aggressive forward expansion into Northern India.

“Strike, strike at the trunk of the withering tree, and the branches will fall off themselves.”

— Peshwa Baji Rao I to Chhatrapati Shahu

Tactical Mastery: The Battle of Palkhed (1728 CE)

Baji Rao perfected a high-speed style of cavalry warfare. His military masterpiece was the Battle of Palkhed (February 1728) against Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad:

Strategic Deception: The Nizam marched on Pune with heavy# The Peshwas and Maratha Expansion Across 18th-Century India

The 18th century in Indian history represents a dramatic shift from Mughal hegemony to a decentralized regional state system, dominated primarily by the Maratha Empire. Following the death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, the Marathas transformed from a regional resistance movement in the Western Ghats into the foremost power across the Indian subcontinent. Central to this imperial expansion were the Peshwas—hereditary Prime Ministers who gradually eclipsed the authority of Chhatrapati Shivaji’s descendants to become the de facto rulers of the Maratha Confederacy.

1. The Transition of Power: From Chhatrapati to Peshwa

The rise of the Peshwas began during a period of internal succession crises and external political opportunity.

Reinstatement of Shahu (1707): After Aurangzeb’s death, Shahu (son of Sambhaji) was released from Mughal captivity. His return led to a civil war against his aunt Tarabai, who had been leading the Maratha state on behalf of her young son Shivaji II.
The Rise of Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720): A Chitpavan Brahmin revenue official, Balaji Vishwanath helped Shahu secure the throne. Appointed as Peshwa (Prime Minister) in 1713, he consolidated financial and political authority.
The Treaty of 1719: Balaji Vishwanath negotiated a critical treaty with the Mughal court (via the Sayyid Brothers), securing:
- Recognition of Shahu as the lawful ruler of Swarajya (Shivaji’s original realm).
- The right to collect Chauth (a 25% tax on revenue) and Sardeshmukhi (an additional 10% levy) across the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan.
Shift of Capital: Under Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb), the center of administration officially shifted from Satara to Pune, formalizing the transition of executive power from the Chhatrapati to the Peshwa.

2. Baji Rao I and the Doctrine of Imperial Expansion (1720–1740)

Baji Rao I, succeeding his father at age 20, shifted Maratha grand strategy from regional defense to aggressive northward expansion. He famously declared: “Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree, and the branches will fall off themselves.”

Master of Cavalry Tactics: Baji Rao emphasized rapid movement, tactical surprise, and cutting off enemy supply lines rather than siege warfare.
Battle of Palkhed (1728): Outmaneuvered Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad, forcing him to accept Maratha rights to collect revenue in the Deccan without contesting Shahu’s legitimacy.
Northward Advance:
- Malwa & Gujarat: Maratha forces conquered Malwa (1728) and Gujarat (1730s), securing rich trade corridors.
- Raid on Delhi (1737): Baji Rao executed a swift advance to the gates of Delhi, exposing the complete vulnerability of the Mughal capital.
- Battle of Bhopal (1737): Defeated a combined force of the Nizam and Mughal allies, cementing Maratha control over central India up to the Narmada River.

3. The Peak of Expansion Under Balaji Baji Rao / Nana Saheb (1740–1761)

Under Nana Saheb, the Maratha state evolved into a broad confederacy. Rather than a centralized empire, expansion was spearheaded by powerful regional Maratha sardars (generals):

                       [ Peshwa (Pune) ]
                              │
  ┌──────────────┬────────────┼─────────────┬──────────────┐
  │              │            │             │              │
[Gaekwad]    [Holkar]     [Scindia]     [Bhonsle]      [Puar]
(Baroda)     (Indore)     (Gwalior)     (Nagpur)      (Dhar)

Strategic Conquests

Pan-Indian Footprint: Maratha armies launched expeditions into Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa (under Raghuji Bhonsle of Nagpur), forcing the Nawab of Bengal to cede Orissa and pay Chauth.
Capture of Attock (1758): Raghunath Rao led Maratha forces into the Punjab, capturing Lahore and raising the Maratha flag (Bhagwa Zenda) at the fortress of Attock on the banks of the Indus River.
Administrative Centralization: Nana Saheb modernized financial records, strengthened Pune as a commercial and judicial hub, and expanded revenue collection networks.

4. The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and its Aftermath

The extension of Maratha influence into Punjab brought them into direct conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali, the ruler of the Afghan Durrani Empire.

The Conflict: On January 14, 1761, the Maratha army, led by Sadashivrao Bhau, met Abdali’s combined forces at Panipat.
Key Vulnerabilities:
- Over-reliance on heavy artillery and traditional infantry formations alongside cavalry.
- Strained supply lines in northern India.
- Failure to secure key regional allies (e.g., the Rajputs, Jats, and the Nawab of Awadh side-stepped or supported Abdali due to previous Maratha revenue demands).
Impact: The Marathas suffered a devastating defeat, losing key military commanders (Sadashivrao Bhau, Vishwasrao) and tens of thousands of soldiers. Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao died shortly after receiving news of the disaster.

5. Maratha Resurrection and the Late 18th Century

Despite the catastrophe at Panipat, Maratha power did not collapse permanently.

Peshwa Madhavrao I (1761–1772): A brilliant administrator and commander, Madhavrao restored stability, disciplined the revenue system, defeated the Nizam and Hyder Ali of Mysore, and reasserted control over Northern India within a decade.
Restoration of Delhi (1771): Maratha forces under Mahadaji Scindia recaptured Delhi and restored the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II to his throne under Maratha protection.
Rise of Military Modernization: Leaders like Mahadaji Scindia (Gwalior) and Ahilyabai Holkar (Indore) operated with near-total autonomy. Scindia raised European-trained infantry brigades, making his army one of the most formidable in South Asia.

6. Decline and the Anglo-Maratha Wars

The death of Madhavrao I at a young age in 1772 re-opened internal rivalries that ultimately invited intervention by the British East India Company.

Conflict	Dates	Key Causes & Outcomes
First Anglo-Maratha War	1775–1782	Triggered by internal succession dispute (Raghunath Rao defecting to the British). Ended in a draw with the Treaty of Salbai, recognizing Sawai Madhavrao as Peshwa.
Second Anglo-Maratha War	1803–1805	Peshwa Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein (1802), accepting British subsidiary alliance. Scindia and Bhonsle resisted but were defeated.
Third Anglo-Maratha War	1817–1818	A final desperate attempt by Baji Rao II and regional chiefs to break British control. The Peshwaship was abolished; Baji Rao II was exiled to Bithoor.

Key Takeaways

Structural Transformation: The Maratha state evolved from a centralized Swarajya under Shivaji into a confederacy driven by regional ruling houses under the Peshwas.
Fiscal Military Structure: Expansion was heavily sustained by revenue mechanisms (Chauth and Sardeshmukhi), which financed armies but often alienated neighboring Indian rulers.
Geopolitical Vacuum: By dismantling Mughal authority across Northern and Central India, the Peshwas unified vast territories, but internal fragmentation eventually allowed the British East India Company to step into the political vacuum in the early 19th century.

Category: History of India